ALPHABETICAL BRAIN™ VOCABULARY HUMANIST GALAXY OF SECULAR SCIENCE STARS PATRICIA CHURCHLAND August 9, 2021 BRAINTRUST: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Morality Patricia S. Churchland, Princeton University Press, 2011 (273 pages) Quote = "Churchland takes us on a thrilling journey from molecules to morals. We learn how brain chemicals implicated in orgasms also underlie ethics. But Churchland resists biological reductionism --- along with the rigid rules of religion and philosophy --- and compellingly argues that morality is culturally crafted to meet the demands of human life." (By Jesse Prinz, author of the book, Beyond Human Nature: How Culture and Experience Shape the Human Mind. BOOK OUTLINE note = Numbers in parentheses refer to pages LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (ix) 1) INTRODUCTION (pages 1-11) note = "So what is it to be fair? How do we know what to count as fair? Why do we regard trial by ordeal as wrong? Thus opens the door into the vast tangled forest of questions about right and Wrong, good and evil, virtues and vices For most of my adult life as a philosopher, l shied away from plunging unreservedly into these sorts of questions about morality. This was largely because I could not see a systematic way through that tangled forest since it had no strong connection to evolution or to the brain, and hence was in peril of floating on a sea of mere opinion... It did seem that likely Aristotle, Hume, and Darwin were right: namely, that we are social by nature." (2) note = "But what does that actually mean in terms of our brains and genes?" (2-3) note = "The core of the biological approach to human morality favored in this book is not new, though my particular way of synthesizing the data and encompassing the relevant philosophical tradition may be. The approach reaches back to Aristotle (384-322 BCE) and the great Chinese philosopher Mencius (fourth century BCE), to those sensible Eighteenth-century Scots, David Hume and Adam Smith. Also, it depends enormously on Charles Darwin. Advances in the biological and social sciences have made it possible to explore in earnest the connections between morality and the evolution of the mammalian brain that produced "the family way of life." (11) note = Briefly, the strategy for developing the central argument in the book is this: The next chapter will give a bit of background concerning the evolutionary constraints on social and moral behavior. The third chapter goes into detail about the evolution of the mammalian brain which supports caring, examining the role of hormones such as oxytocin. The fourth chapter looks more closely at cooperation, especially human cooperation, and data regarding the role of oxytocin in cooperation and trust. The fifth chapter on genes is cautionary, focusing on what is known, and not known, about genes and moral modules in the brain. The sixth chapter addresses the social importance of the capacity for attributing mental states to the brain. In the seventh chapter, the matter of rules and their role in moral behavior puts the discussion into a more traditional philosophical form. Religion and its relation to morality are the topics of the concluding eighth chapter. (11) 2) BRAIN-BASED VALUES (12-26) note ="Moral values ground a life that is a social life. At the root of human moral practices are the social desires; most fundamentally, these involve attachment to family members, care for friends, the need to belong. Motivated by these values, individually and collectively we try to solve problems that can cause misery and instability and threaten survival. Since our brains are organized to value self-welfare as well as welfare of kith and kin, conflicts frequently arise between the needs of the self and the needs of others. Social problem-solving, grounded by social urges, leads to ways of handling these conflicts. Some solutions are more effective than others, and some may be socially unstable in the long run or as conditions change. Thus arise cultural practices, conventions, and institutions. As a child grows up within the social ecology of such practices, robust intuitions about right and wrong take root and flower. Where do values come from? How did brains come to care about others? If my genes organize my brain to attend to my survival, to reproduce and pass on those genes, how can they organize my brain." (12) note = First, however, the more fundamental question: how is it that brains care about anything?... To put it more tendentiously, how can neurons care? What does it mean for a system of neurons to care about or to value something? On these questions, we do know quite a lot, and the answers will launch us into the more complex domain of social caring. In all animals, neural circuitry grounds self-caring and well-being. These are values in the most elemental sense. Lacking the motivation for self-preservation, an animal will neither long survive, nor likely reproduce. So evident is this, that the existence of social values, and of behavior directed toward the care of others, may seem deeply puzzling. Why do we, and other social mammals, care for others? This much we know: on average, such behavior must, either directly or indirectly, serve the fitness of the animals involved... What ultimately tells the accounting tale of costs and benefits is "reproductive success." This means the spread of genes through the population over many generations... The sociability and voluntary association among individuals seen in humans, and the style of cooperation and other-caring, is mainly owed to evolutionary changes specific to the mammalian brain and the evolutionary pressures existing at the dawn of mammals. (13) note = "Depending on ecological conditions and fitness considerations, strong caring for the well-being of offspring has in some mammalian species extended further to encompass kin or mates or friends or even strangers, as the circle widens. This widening of other-caring in social behavior marks the emergence of what eventually flowers into morality. The particular form a species’ social life takes will depend greatly on how the species makes its living. For some species, group living is on average highly advantageous, especially in matters such as hunting and defense against predation; for others, such as bears, solitary foraging and self-defense suffice. (14) note = "Oxytocin, a very ancient peptide (chain of amino acids), is at the hub of the intricate network of mammalian adaptations for caring for others, anchoring the many different versions of sociality that are seen, depending on the evolution of the lineage. Oxytocin is found in all vertebrates, but the evolution of the mammalian brain adapted oxytocin to new jobs in caring for offspring and eventually for wider forms of sociability." (14) note = "The molecular structure of oxytocin, with its nine amino acids (cysteine occurs twice), are linked by other molecules. "By contrast, hemoglobin, the molecule in the blood that contains iron and carries oxygen, has about 500 amino acids. Hence oxytocin is considered a simple peptide (string of amino acids)... with a three-dimensional structure... Besides the new roles for oxytocin and other hormones, two additional interdependent evolutionary changes in the brain were crucial for the "mammalian sociality" that prefigured morality. The first involved modifications that gave rise to negative feelings of fear and anxiety in face of separation from or threat to the offspring, along with the motivation to take corrective action. In addition, pleasure and relief come when the parent is rejoined with the offspring or the threat has passed." (15) note = "The second main modification was an increased capacity for learning, linked to pain and pleasure, that served an individual in acquiring detailed knowledge of the “ways” of others in the group. Expanded memory capacities greatly enhanced the animals ability to anticipate trouble and to plan more effectively. These modifications support the urge to be together, as well as the development of a “conscience” tuned to local social practices; that is, a set of social responses." (15) 3) CARING AND CARING FOR (27-62) 4) COOPERATING AND TRUSTING (63-94) 5) NETWORKING: GENES, BRAINS, AND BEHAVIOR (95-117) 6) SKILLS FOR A SOCIAL LIFE (118-162) 7) NOT AS A RULE (163-190) 8) RELIGION AND MORALITY (191-204) NOTES (205-234) BIBLIOGRAPHY (235-258) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (259-260) INDEX (261-273) ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SUMMARY, AND BOOK DESCRIPTION ABOUT THE AUTHOR = Patricia S. Churchland is professor emerita of philosophy at the University of California, San Diego, and an adjunct professor at the Salk Institute. Her books include "Brain-Wise" and "Neurophilosophy". In 1991, she was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship. BOOK DESCRIPTION = What is morality? Where does it come from? And why do most of us heed its call most of the time? In Braintrust, neurophilosophy pioneer Patricia Churchland argues that morality originates in the biology of the brain. She describes the "neurobiological platform of bonding" that, modified by evolutionary pressures and cultural values, has led to human styles of moral behavior. The result is a provocative genealogy of morals that asks us to reevaluate the priority given to religion, absolute rules, and pure reason in accounting for the basis of morality. Churchland argues that moral values are rooted in a behavior common to all mammals --- the caring for offspring. The evolved structure, processes, and chemistry of the brain incline humans to strive not only for self-preservation but for the well-being of allied selves--- first offspring, then mates, kin, and so on, in wider and wider "caring" circles. Separation and exclusion cause pain, and the company of loved ones causes pleasure; responding to feelings of social pain and pleasure, brains adjust their circuitry to local customs. In this way, caring is apportioned, conscience molded, and moral intuitions instilled. A key part of the story is oxytocin, an ancient body-and-brain molecule that, by decreasing the stress response, allows humans to develop the trust in one another necessary for the development of close-knit ties, social institutions, and morality. A major new account of what really makes us moral. The book challenges us to reconsider the origins of some of our most cherished values. PROFESSIONAL BOOK REVIEWS [1] In its search for the origins of morality, this book deftly balances philosophical questions and an understanding of how the brain actually works. It is a rare combination, and extremely fruitful. Churchland roots morality firmly in the social emotions rather than in some abstract principles, yet shows us how and why these principles nevertheless emerge." – Frans de Waal, author of Our Inner Ape and The Age of Empathy. [2] Few areas of science are as relevant for the future of humanity as the science of morality, and few scholars are as prepared to comment on its current status as Patricia Churchland. She has exactly the right background to carve out an original approach to the problem, and the skills needed to lead the reader to solid new facts while being merciless with exaggerated claims and sloppy thinking. Braintrust is vintage Churchland, only better." – Antonio Damasio, author of Descartes's Error [3] This is a terrific, clear, and finely sensitive account of human moral and social behavior and its neurobiological --- and decidedly secular --- underpinnings. Patricia Churchland once again leads the way." – Michael S. Gazzaniga, author of Human: The Science Behind What Makes Your Brain Unique. [4] This superb book is the ideal answer to those who doubt that neuroscience, experimental psychology, and behavioral studies of nonhuman animals can ever tell us anything valuable about human morality. Written with elegance, subtlety, and deep learning lightly worn, this is one of those rare books that will enlighten and fascinate novices and experts alike." – Paul Seabright, author of The Company of Strangers: A Natural History of Economic Life. [5] Churchland takes us on a thrilling journey from molecules to morals. We learn how brain chemicals implicated in orgasms also underlie ethics. But Churchland resists biological reductionism --- along with the rigid rules of religion and philosophy --- and compellingly argues that morality is culturally crafted to meet the demands of human life." – Jesse Prinz, author of Beyond Human Nature: How Culture and Experience Shape the Human Mind. [6] Braintrust is a tour de force, a take-no-prisoners deconstruction of the fictions of ethics based on pure reason or intuition, and a sustained defense of what, at our best, we are already doing--using our brains to flourish in complex social and natural ecologies." – Owen Flanagan, author of The Really Hard Problem: Meaning in a Material World. [7] This is a groundbreaking contribution to our understanding of how morality is related to our biology and evolution. It is also a unique and valuable bridge between neuroscience and philosophy." – Ralph J. Greenspan, Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego. [8] Churchland, by insisting that morality is neither an innate instinct nor an abstract system, but rather a tough, practical problem posed by our instincts, is bringing together the best in both neuroscientific and philosophical thinking." – Josh Rothman, Boston Globe's Brainiac blog. [9] Churchland guides the reader through lucid, well-articulated explanations of subjects like oxytocin's effect on an individual's hormonal makeup, brain changes over time, and relevant gene research, tying these neuroscientific elements together with more social science oriented areas like cooperation, trust, and rule creation... In bringing together aspects of philosophy and neuroscience, Churchland presents a persuasive argument that morality is not shaped solely by religious or social forces but, instead, also draws on hormonal triggers, genes, and brain evolution. This influential work is likely to be a valuable resource for anyone seeking to gain a fresh, exciting perspective on an oft-discussed area of philosophy." – Elizabeth Millard, ForeWord Reviews. [10] The book is about: morality, fairness and the source of both. But don't expect tight definitions of either term, let alone a didactic treatise on human evolution. Instead, sit back and let Churchland run her ideas past you. She's so chatty you'll never guess the University of California, San Diego, philosopher is associated with a school of thought called "Eliminative Materialism." (Don't ask. Even a philosopher friend was fuzzy on the details.) She is just plain interesting." – Leigh Dayton, Australian. Click or Tap Star to Return to Humanist Hub RETURN TO THE HUMANIST HUB OF SECULAR SCIENCE STARS ALPHABETICAL BRAIN™ VOCABULARY! produced by Infinite Interactive Ideas™